What changes are indigenous peoples observing in the state of sea ice? Changes in Arctic sea ice over the past 50 years: Bridging the knowledge gap between the scientific community and the Alaska Native community. How have changes in Arctic environment over the past 50 years affected the Alaska Native community?
How has the intensity of UVB radiation changed recently in the Arctic, and what significance might these changes have? What changes have occurred in Arctic sea ice volume and dynamics over the past 50 years? How might sea level be affected by changes in the Arctic land ice? What long term trends and decadal changes do you see occurring in the Arctic atmosphere, and what significance do they have? How well can Arctic climate be simulated by computer-based models?
The area is now thought to hold some 13 percent of the world's untapped oil reserves and up to 30 percent of its undiscovered natural gas.
Unlike the Antarctic, which belongs to no one and is governed by international treaty, the Arctic is up for grabs, and the eight countries that ring the region -- Russia, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Denmark, Canada, and the United States -- have grown increasingly assertive, holding military exercises and even reopening nearby Cold War-era bases. Every Arctic nation has ratified it -- well, every nation except the United States.
Unlike the Antarctic, which belongs to no one and is governed by international treaty, the Arctic is up for grabs, and the eight countries that ring the region — Russia, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Denmark, Canada, and the United States — have grown increasingly assertive, holding military exercises and even reopening nearby Cold War-era bases.
Every Arctic nation has ratified it — well, every nation except the United States. Canadian Sen. Norwegian company Store Norske begins mining coal in the Arctic Svalbard archipelago. A year later, the Soviet Union follows suit and claims the region between its borders and the North Pole. In so doing, he redefines the notion of sovereignty on the high seas — previously understood to end three nautical miles from shore. The treaty, which is later ratified by every Arctic state except Iceland, grants sovereign rights over continental shelf resources up to a depth of meters or to a depth at which exploitation of natural resources is technically feasible.
The SS Manhattan oil tanker becomes the first commercial ship to cross the Northwest Passage, the sea route that connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans — and an area that Canada considers an internal waterway.
For 17th-century whalers, it was an El Dorado of bowhead blubber and walrus tusks. For cold war defence planners, it was the shortest flight path for a ballistic missile strike.
Denmark and Canada have since filed their own overlapping seafloor claims. But the warming of the Arctic has galvanised resource extraction more than environmental concerns. On the American side, the Trump administration has pledged drilling lease sales in the Arctic national wildlife reserve by the end of the year.
As economic interests in the north have grown, so have military patrols to test or defend territorial boundaries. Collecting Seafloor Seismic Data in the Arctic. Since the seventeenth century a "freedom of the seas" doctrine was accepted by most nations. This doctrine limited a nation's rights and jurisdiction to the narrow area of sea along the nation's coastline. The remainder of the ocean was considered as common property that could be used by anyone.
This was before anyone had the ability to exploit offshore resources. Then in the mids, concerns that long-distance fishing fleets were depleting coastal fish stocks triggered a desire in some nations to have greater control over their coastal waters.
Then oil companies became capable of drilling in deep water, and ideas for the seabed mining of manganese nodules, diamonds, and tin-bearing sands started to seem possible. Any nation that claimed a greater distance from shore also made claim to valuable seafloor resources.
Larger version: Arctic Ocean Political Map. In , the United States announced that it assumed jurisdiction of all natural resources out to the edge of its continental shelf. This was the first nation to depart from the freedom of the seas doctrine, and other nations quickly followed.
Nations began making unilateral claims to seafloor resources, fishing grounds, and exclusive navigable zones. The United Nations sought to bring order and equity to the diversity of claims being made by nations around the world.
It addressed navigational rights, territorial waters limits, exclusive economic zones, fishing, pollution, drilling, mining, conservation and many other aspects of maritime activity. With over nations participating, it was the first attempt by the international community to establish a formal agreement on how the seas can be used. It also proposes a logical allocation of ocean resources.
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